JAINA ART AND ICONOGRAPHY
By Dr. M. N. P. Tiwari
(Dept.
of History of Art, Banaras Hindu University)
Indian
Culture is the confluence of varied cultural trends, religious thought and
philosophy and art. Jainism indeed has been one of its main streams, but
somehow it could not receive adequate attention earlier, despite the fact
that it has contributed immensely to the development and enrichment of
Indian culture, literature and art. The contribution of Jainas towards art
and architecture was specially important in view of the magnificent
artistic creations, particularly in the forms of images, temples and
paintings, spread all over the country and covering a time span in
continuity from the earliest through the modern times. The Jaina art with
profuse variety changes innovations and embellishments (barring Jina
images) has never been monotonous also.
The
only enigmatic and so far unanswered question is that what could have been
the reasons that Jainism (and thereby Jaina art) like Buddhism did not
spread beyond Indian subcontinent while Jaina traders and business
community were frequently visiting foreign countries. Was it that there
were no missionary activities in this context? Further the reference to
the visit of Jaina monks are also not known. The situation in 20th century
however has changed completely.
The
religion and art in Indian context go hand in hand and virtually the
religious thought and concept find visual expressions in different forms
of art like architecture, sculpture, icon, painting and also fine arts and
performing arts. These all in Jaina context are the vehicles of the
principal ideas of spirituality, non-violence, absolute renunciation and
austerity. It may be pointed out at the outset that it was only with the
Jainas that they did never compromise with their basic tenets, which find
best expressions in the images of the Jinas or Tirthankaras and
Gommatesvara Bahubali. Before taking up the evolution of Jaina sculptures
and their iconography in north and south India, it is also essential to
have a background of Jaina pantheon also on the basis of which various
Jaina icons were evolved which developed further in reference to time and
space.
PANTHEON
Historically speaking the evolution of the Jaina pantheon (devakula) was a
gradual process. By the end of 4th-5th century AD the Jaina pantheon
mainly consisted of:
24
Jinas, Yaksas and Yaksis (or sasanadevatas), Vidyadevis, Laksmi,
Balarama, Krsna, Rama, Naigamesa, Bahubali and Bharata, Other
Salakapurusas (or Mahapurusas).
The
Salakapurusas, 63 in number, are Great Souls and their lives are
invariably referred to in Svetambara Carit texts and Digambara Puranas.
Their list includes the 24 Jinas, 12 Cakravartins, 9 Baladevas, 9
Vasudevas, and 9 Prativasudevas. It may be noted here that only the names
and some of the general features of the deities were finalized by the
fifth century AD, while their detailed iconographic features were
finalized between the 8th and 13th century AD.
The
development of Jaina pantheon was more or less identical in both the sects
and the differences are to be noticed mainly in regard to their names and,
at times, their forms and iconographic features. The story of the transfer
of embryo of Mahavira, the image of Jivantasvamin Mahavira and reference
to Mallinatha as female Tirthankara do not find mention in the Digambara
works.
The
terms Jina (invincible or liberator), Buddha (enlightened one), arhat
(deserving worship) and nirgrantha (free from bondage) were commonly used
by both the early Buddhists and Jainas to refer to those who had achieved
spiritual liberation. The founders of Jainism were Jinas, also known as
Tirthankara (maker of a tirtha, between the material and spiritual
worlds.)
The
Jainas have divided unending time cycle into two aeons-avasarpini
(descending order of all virtues) and utsarpini (ascending order of
virtues) with 24 Jinas in each of the two aeons. The present age is an
avasarpini age, of which Parsvanatha and Mahavira are the last two Jinas
who are accepted as historical ones. Thus in the Jaina conception of time,
Jaina doctrine has no beginning or end.
Belief
in the 24 Jinas evolved gradually.
1. Rsabhanatha (or Adinatha), 2. Ajitanatha, 3. Sambhavanatha, 4.
Abhinandana, 5. Sumatinatha, 6. Padmaprabha, 7. Suparsvanatha, 8.
Candraprabha, 9. Puspadanta (or Suvidhinatha), 10. Sitalanatha, 11.
Sreyamsanatha, 12. Vasupujya, 13. Vimalanatha, 14. Anantanatha, 15.
Dharmanatha, 16. Santinatha, 17. Kunthunatha, 18. Aranatha, 19. Mallinatha,
20. Munisuvrata, 21. Naminatha, 22. Neminatha )\(or Aristanemi), 23.
Parsvanatha, 24. Mahavira (or Vardhamana)
The
Kalpa-Sutra, a Jaina Canonical text, describes the lives of four
tirthankaras in detail. Rsabhanatha
(first Jina), Aristanemi (22nd Jina), Parsvanatha and Mahavira.
Whereas
the lives of the remaining 20 Jinas are given in a brief format. This
portion (Jina caritra-Lives of Jinas) of the above text seems to have been
added and edited in about 4th century AD
The
gods in Jainism are classified into four main groups
1 Bhavanavasis (gods of the house), 2 Vyantaras (intermediaries), 3
Jyotiskas (luminaries-navagrahas) and 4 Vaimanikas (astral gods).
Each
of these are subdivided into several groups with Indras (chiefs) at the
head and including also the lokapalas (guardians of the cardinal points of
the universe) and armies of gods and queens of Indras.
The
Vyantara gods are divided into:
Yaksas (vegetation spirits), Bhutas (ghosts), Pisacas (fiends), Raksasas
(demonical beings), Kinnaras (half-horse-half human), Gandharvas
(celestial musicians), and Others. Such
deities have played an important role in ancient Indian folk worship.
Besides
these, certain other gods and goddesses are mentioned in various Jaina
texts, including four gatekeepers of the rampart of the Jambudvipa and
four goddesses-Jaya, Vijaya, Jayanta and Aparajita. A list of 64
dikkumaris (maidens of the directions) who act as nurses when the Jina is
born, includes several goddesses that suggest Brahmanical influence or
borrowing from some common ancient Indian heritage.
These
deities are, however, assigned a position subordinate to the Jinas and
other liberated souls (siddhas) who are called devadhidevas (Lords of
Gods) by Hemacandra in 12th century AD. Next in order to the Jinas (arhats)
and siddhas are the Jaina ascetic souls called acaryas (leaders of groups
of monks), upadhyayas (readers who teach sacred texts and hence shown with
manuscript) and sadhus (monks in general shown with ogho or rajoharana or
mukha pattika and tarpani-wooden water vessel). These five constitute the
Panca-paramesthins (five chief divinities).
The
24 Jinas along with certain other souls including
12 Cakravartinsi (world conquerors) - Bharata, Sagara, Maghva, Sanatkumara,
Santi, Kunthu, Ara (last three being Jinas), Subhuma, Padma, Harisena,
Jaisena, Brahmadatta,
Nine Vasudevas - Triprsta, Dviprsta, Svayambhu, Purusottama, Purusasimha,
Purusa Pundarika, Datta, Narayana or Laksmana, Krsna
Nine Baladevas - Acala, Vijaya, Bhadra, Suprabha, Sudarsana, Anand, Nandan,
Padma or Rama, Balarama
constitute a list of 54 Salakapurusas (Great Souls) and
Nine Prati-Vasudevas (enemies of Vasudevas) - Asvagriva, Taraka. Merak,
Nisumbha, Madhukaitabha, Bal, Prahlada. Ravana, Jarasandha are added
subsequently making the total of 63.
The
other figures such as 9 Naradas, 11 Rudras, 24 Kamadevas (gods of love),
Ganesa, Saptamatrkas, 64 yoginis show Brahmanical influence. Bahubali, the
son of the first Jina, Rsabhanatha is said to be the first of the
Kamadevas.
NORTH
INDIA
The
contribution of north India (north of the Vindhyan Mountains) in the
development of Jaina art and iconography is of much more significance than
what has been brought out. According to the Jaina tradition, all the 24
Jinas of present avasarpini aeon were born in this region and it was here
that they spent their active lives. Perhaps this was the reason that most
of the Jaina deities gained sculptural representations first in the
region. The earliest Jina images with their characteristic iconographic
features such as flowing hair-locks of Rsabhanatha, seven-hooded snake
canopy of Parsvanatha, srivatsa, astapratiharyas, cognizances and
yaksa-yaksi pairs also make their first appearance in this region.
However, the characteristic usnisa and the srivatsa are generally absent
in the Jina images of south India. The figures of the Jaina Mahavidyas,
the complete sets of 24 Yaksis, Jivantasvamin Mahavira and Jaina tutelary
couples (or parents of Jinas) etc. are also conspicuous by their absence
in south India. This absence requires proper investigation.
The
Indus Valley civilization (c. 2300-1750 BC) is the earliest civilization
of India. The figures on some of the seals from Mohen-Jo-Daro and also a
male torso from Harappa remind of the Jina images on account of their
nudity and posture, similar to kayotsarga-mudra, which is exhibited more
emphatically in Lohanipur torso. But nothing can be said with certainty
until the Indus Valley script is deciphered finally.
Apart
from the doubtful instance as above we do not have any literary and
archaeological evidence regarding the Jina image prior to Mahavira.
Mahavira is never said to have visited any Jina temple or worshipped any
Jina image. Instead the Jinas in the agama texts are said to have stayed
in yaksa ayatanas (temples). In this connection it would be relevant to
make reference to the Jivantasvamin Mahavira image which is said to have
been carved in the life-time of Mahavira (c. Late 6th century BC), hence
called Jivantasvamin or Jivitasvamin. According to the tradition, a
sandalwood image of Mahavira, wearing mukuta and other ornaments befitting
royalty, was carved in his life-time during the period of his tapas in
palace, about a year prior to his renunciation. Like the Bodhisattva
before reaching Buddhahood, Jivantasvamin also represented a conception,
which may be called Jina-sattva.
The
earliest-known Jina image, preserved in the Patna Museum, comes from
Lohanipur (Patna, Bihar) and is datable to c. third century BC The nudity
and the kayotsarga-mudra, suggesting rigorous austerity of the image were
confined only to the Jinas. Another Jina image from Lohanipur is
assignable to the Sunga period or slightly later. A terracotta Jina figure
of c. 3rd century BC is also reported from Ayodhya. The reference to the
Kalinga Jina (image), once taken away by Nandaraja, and brought back by
Kharavela (c. 25 BC), in the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela is of
special interest in this connection. Thus the Jina images from Lohanipur
and Ayodhya and also the evidence of Hathigumpha inscription distinctly
suggest that the antiquity of the Jina image may well be pushed back at
least to c. 4th-3rd century BC
The
two early bronze images of Parsvanatha, differently dated by scholars from
2nd century BC to 1st century AD are in the collections of the Prince of
Wales Museum, Mumbai and Patna Museum. These figures provided respectively
with the five- and seven-hooded snake canopy are rendered as sky-clad and
standing in the kayotsarga-mudra.
Mathura
in U.P. was a stronghold of Jainism from c. 100 BC to 1177 AD The early
(c. 100 BC to the Kusana period) Jaina sculptures from Mathura are of
special iconographic significance, because they exhibit certain formative
stages in the development of Jaina iconograhy. The vast amount of
veritable vestiges include the ayagapatas, independent Jina images,
Pratima-sarvatobhadrika, Sarasvati, Naigamesi and also the narrative
scenes from the lives of Rsabhanatha and Mahavira. Of all these, the
ayagapatas (tablets of homage) of 2nd-1st century BC merit special
attention, since they represent the transitional phase of Jaina
iconography in which the worship of auspicious symbols together with the
Jinas in human form was in vogue. One such example of c. 1st century BC,
bearing the figure of Parsvanatha, seated in dhyana-mudra in the centre,
is in the collection of the State Museum, Lucknow ( J. 253). The rendering
of the Jinas in dhyana-mudra (seated cross-legged) and the representation
of srivatsa in the centre of their chest appear for the first time in the
Sunga-Kusana sculptures of Mathura.
The
problem of exact sect affiliation of the Kusana Jina images from Mathura
is a problem which to the most of the scholars are the products of the
Digambara sect in view of the nudity of the Jina images. On the basis of
the acelaka (sky-clad) and sacelaka (draped) ways of living for Jina
friars and Jinas being conceived in Agama texts it has been observed that
the Kusana Jaina images from Mathura, showing full concurrence with the
Agamic tradition, can suggest no sectarian affiliation with the Digambaras,
it rather, and up to at least the mid-2nd century AD, represents the
undifferentiated proto-Svetambara and Digambara sects. The earliest
examples showing the difference of the Svetambara and Digambara sects in
visual representations are known only from late 5th century AD onwards
after Valabhi council. The Kusana figures with volume and stiffness
underwent stylistic change in respect of plasticity, serenity, elegance
and animation during the Gupta period.
The
Gupta period (4th century to 600 AD) was a milestone in the development of
Jaina iconography, and some of the most significant iconographic features,
as for example, the distinguishing cognizances (lanchana) and the
yaksa-yaksi figures, were introduced during the period. The Gupta Jaina
sculptures are reported from several sites, like Mathura, Rajgir, Kahaum,
Nachna, Durjanpur (Vidisha), Varanasi, Chausa and Akota. The images of
Rsabhanatha, Ajitanatha, Candraprabha, Puspadanta, Neminatha, Parsvanatha
and Mahavira Jinas were carved during the period. The first Svetambara
Jaina image, known from Akota (Gujarat), was also carved in the Gupta
period. The Gupta sculptures show a wonderful synthesis between the
external form and the inner meaning with the result that the figures touch
the height of spirituality. The number of Jaina sculptures, as compared to
Kusana period, sharply declined in Gupta period but the area of Jaina
artistic activity widened extensively covering almost the entire country.
The
history of Jainism continued uninterrupted in the post-Gupta period. The
Jaina art and literature thrived most vigorously between the 10th and the
15th century AD The period saw the building of a very large number of
Jaina temples with exquisite sculptural carvings. During the period the
new forms and iconographic features (excepting that of the Jinas) of
various deities were formulated and gradually the number of arms and
thereby the attributes increased to make the most of the manifestations
more as the specimens of codified texts. The parikara (surrounding) of
Jina images also developed with the figural depictions of Navagrahas,
Sarasvati, Laksmi and diminutive Jina figures. Besides, the usual
astapratiharyas and the yaksa-yaksi figures were also carved. The
angularity and flexion along with embellishments and ornamentation were
other distinct features of medieval Jaina sculptures.
Gujarat
and Rajasthan were the strongholds of the Svetambara sect while the
vestiges yielded by other regions are affiliated mainly to the Digambara
and the Yapaniya sects. The tradition of carving 24 devakulikas with the
figures of 24 Jinas therein was popular mainly at the Svetambara Jaina
sites. The Digambara Jina images show much more variety in iconographic
details than the Svetambara images, wherein the figures of Navagrahas,
Bahubali, Balarama and Krsna (with Neminatha), yaksa-yaksi, and few other
goddesses, like Laksmi and Sarasvati, are carved in the parikara. At the
Svetambara sites the mention of the names of the Jinas in the pedestal
inscription was preferred to providing them with their respective
cognizances which are usually found in the examples of Digambara Jina
images. The rendering of the narratives from the lives of the Jinas was
popular mainly with the Svetambaras.
The
sixteen Mahavidyas were accorded the most favored position after the Jinas
in Western India while in other parts of the country the most favored
position after the Jinas in Western India while in other parts of the
country the yaksa and yaksi occupied that position. Of the sixteen
Mahavidyas, Rohini, Vajrankusa, Vajrasrnkhala, Apraticakra, Acchupta and
Vairotya were the most popular ones.
The
representation of Santidevi, Brahmasanti yaksa, Jivantasvamin Mahavira,
Ganesa, the parents of the 24 Jinas, and some unidentified goddesses (not
known in Jaina tradition) was confined mainly to the western Indian sites.
The figures of Sarasvati, Astadikpalas, Navagrahas and Ksetrapala were
popular in both the sects. On the other hand the figures of Rohini,
Manovega, Gauri and Gandhari yaksis, Garuda yaksa, Jaina tutelary couples
and Rama and Sita occur only at the Digambara Jaina sites. There are also
some icon types and images from the Digambara Jaina sites like Deogarh and
Khajuraho, which are not known in the textual tradition. The rendering of
the dvitirthi and tritirthi Jina images and the representation of
Sarasvati and Bahubali in tritirthi Jina images, and also the rendering of
yaksa-yaksi figures with Bahubali and Ambika are only some such rare
examples.
The
Jainas developed their pantheon by assimilating and transforming different
Brahmanical legendary characters and deities in Jaina creed which could
distinctly be gleaned through their vast literature as well as surviving
visual imagery. Vimala Vasahi and Luna vasahi (c. 1150-1230 AD) exhibit
some of very interesting renderings of Krsnalila and other Vaisnava themes
which include Kaliya-damana, Krsna playing iholii with kanaka-srngakosa
(as mentioned in Harsacarita) with gopas and gopikas, the episode of Bali
and Vamana, samudramanthana and vivid carvings pertaining to Krsna janma
and balalilas. The figures of saptamatrkas, finding no mention in Jaina
works, were also carved in some of the examples known from Mathura,
Gyaraspur, Vimala vasahi and Khandagiri.
We
also encounter figures of several such deities, mainly the female ones, at
the prolific Jaina sites like Vimala vasahi, Luna vasahi and Kumbharia
which could not be identified on the testimony of the available textual
prescriptions. Most of the deities of such cases show the influence of the
Brahmanical goddesses. Vimala vasahi alone has 16 such goddesses, some of
which with bull as mount and holding either trisula and sarpa or trisula
in both the hands have distinct Saivite stamp.
The
figures of male deities in these sculptures are meager in number as
compared to the female ones, which probably owes to the Tantric influences
and Sakti worship. The Parsvanatha Jaina temple (AD 950-70) at Khajuraho
contains all along its facade the divine figures with their Saktis in
alingana-pose, which include Siva, Visnu, Brahma, Rama, Balarama, Agni,
Kama, and Kubera. Such figures are against the accepted norms of Jaina
tradition and were actually carved under the influence of Brahmanical
temples at the site. Many of these divine figures, excepting Ambika and a
few Jinas, are related with the Brahmanical pantheon. On the south and
north sikhara and also the facade of the garbhagrha of the Parsvanatha
temple, there are four sculptures showing amorous couples.
The
instances of erotic figures in Jaina context, datable between 10th and
12th centuries AD are also known from Deogarh (doorway, Temple No. 18),
Santinatha temple at Nadlai (Pali, Rajasthan), Ajitanatha temple at
Taranga (Mahesana, Gujarat) and Neminatha temple at Kumbharia (Gujarat).
The presence of erotic figures at Jaina sites is gross violation of the
Jaina tradition, which does not even conceive of any Jaina god alongwith
his Sakti in alingana pose. Such figures hence were carved due to the
Tantric influence in Jainism during the early medieval times (c. 9th to
11th centuries AD). The Jaina Harivamsa Purana (AD 783, 29.1-10) makes the
point more clear by referring to the construction of a Jina temple by a
sresthi-Kamadatta, who for the general attraction of people also caused
installation of the figures of Kamadeva and Rati in the temple. It also
alludes to the worship of Rati and Kamadeva along with the Jina images. It
may also be noted here that the Tantric influence was accepted in Jainism
with certain restraints. Overt eroticism was never so pronounced in Jaina
literature and sculptural manifestations as was the case with Brahmanical
and Buddhist religions, which is evident from the examples carved on the
temples of Khajuraho, Modhera, Konark, Bhubanesvara and many other places.
The erotic figures from Jaina temples as compared to Brahmanical ones are
neither so large in number nor so obscene in manifestations.
During
the Pala period the Jainas visualized some innovatory forms as well which
was apparently inspired by the tradition of syncretic images. A few Jina
images of 9th-10th centuries from Sonbhandar cave and Vaibhara hill at
Rajgir are endowed with five- or seven-hooded snake canopy but the
cognizances on the pedestals are conch, elephant and lion which thus show
the composite features of the Jinas and hence identifiable as
Parsvanatha-Ajitanatha, Suparsvanatha-Neminatha and Parsvanatha-Mahavira.
Deogarh
was singularly important for innovatory icon types which although not
referred to in literary injunctions are well in tune with the Jaina
tradition. These include particularly the figures of Bharata cakravartin
and Bahubali, the two sons of Rsabhanatha, who owing to their rigorous
austerity were elevated in status to equal the Jinas, highest in Jaina
worship. The features like the astapratiharyas and the figures of yaksa
and yaksi (Gomukha and Cakresvari of Rsabhanatha), invariably shown with
the Jinas, have also been associated with Bahubali to suggest his
elevation.
In
about the 16th century Lonkasaha started a subsect of Svetambaras known as
sthanakavasis in western India and claimed that image worship is not
sanctioned by the Agamas. In the 18th century Acarya Bhiksu organized
Terapantha, which also was opposed to image worship. Tulasi Ganin, the
leader of Terapantha, has organized a group known as the Anuvrata Sangha.
In the 16th century a Digambara named Taranuasvamin organized the
Taranapantha sect, which too repudiated image worship.
The
most prolific Jaina sites of north India were Mathura, Deogarh, Chandpur,
Chanderi, Khajuraho, Bilhari, Gwalior, Khandagiri (Barbhuji and Navamuni
caves-Puri, Orissa), Akota, Delvada (Vimala vasahi, Luna-vasahi,
Kharatara-vasahi), Kumbharia, Taranga, Jalore, Ranakpur, Girnar,
Satrunjaya and many more.
SOUTH
INDIA
South
India (south of Vindhyan mountain) has been an important seat of Digambara
and also the yapaniya Jaina sect. The tradition says that the Mauryan
ruler Chandragupta journeyed to the south towards the end of his life in
the company of his teacher Bhadrabahu, some time before 297 BC The
Digambara monk Visakhacarya with a number of followers went to South India
in the areas of the Cholas and the Pandayas. Kundakundacarya also spread
Jainism in the area. It was mainly during the period of the Pallavas of
Kanchipuram , Rastrakutas of Malkhed and the Pandyas of Madurai that
Jainism had its heydays. The whole of the south, particularly Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and great dynasties of these regions were often
dedicated to Jainism. We know of the rulers (5th to 12th-13th cent. AD) of
the Pallava, Pandya, Western Chalukya, Gangas, Rastrakuta, Kalchuri and
Hoyasala royal families who were devoted to Jainism and its spread.
Many
Jaina poets of great repute flourished under the patronage of Rastrakuta
rulers of Manyakheta )Malkhed). Under their patronage developed the Jaina
caves of Ellora Cave (Nos. 30-34) which have yielded some of the
masterpieces of Jaina sculptures of Bahubali, Parsvanatha and Ambika.
Virasena wrote his monumental commentaries on Satkhandagama under
Jagattunga and his successor, Jainasena and Gunabhadra Acaryas composed
the great epic Mahapurana (consisting of Adipurana and Uttarapurana) at
the time of King Amoghavarsa, a follower of Jainism. Mahaviracarya wrote a
work on mathematics. King Amoghavarsa was himself the author of
Ratnamalika, a work that became popular with all the sects. Puspadanta
composed his famous Mahapursna in Apabhramsa under the patronage of the
minister of the Rastrakuta ruler Krsna III.
The
earliest vestiges of Jaina art in South India are of about 2nd cent. BC
These are mostly natural saverns and caves in the extreme South. These
caves are at Anamalai, Arachallevi, Aykudi Kalugumalai, Kurungalakkudi,
Kidaripatti, Kilavalavu, Kongapulayankulam, Kunnakudi, Mamandur,
Margalavalai, Mettupatti, Muttupatti, Pugalur, Sittanavasal,
Tiruchirapalli, Tirupparankunram, Vavidhaiyur and Vikkiramangalam. There
are several improvised rockcut beds carved for the monks with slightly
raised pillows for supporting the head of slumbering monk. The short
references to donations magnanimously made by lay followers are mentioned
in early Brahmi inscriptions.
The
most prolific sites of sculptural and architectural embellishments in
South India (including Maharashtra) from c. 600 AD to 16th cent. AD are
Badami Aihole, Arsikeri, Lakkundi, Halebid, Mudabidri, Humcha
Sravanabelgola (Chalukya 8th-9th century to Nayak period), Karur (Shimoga)
and Venur and Karkoil in Karnataka, Ellora (five caves-Nos. 30-34, 9th
cent. AD) in Maharashtra, Tiruparuttikunaram (c. 8th-16th-17th cent.
AD-both sculpture and painting), Sittannavasal, Tirakkol, Armamaloi (all
three Pallava), Melsittamur and Deviagaram (South Arcot), Kalugumalai,
Karaikoyil, Tirumalai (Vellore, 9th-10th century AD), Vallimalai and
Danavulapadu (Cuddapah) in Tamilnadu (Guntur-8th century AD), Vallimalai
and Chandragiri (Chittoor - 9th to 12th century .D. and Penukonda (Anantapur
- 11th century A..D.) in Andhra Pradesh and Kallil (c. 8th-9th century AD)
in Kerala.
The
western Gangas, who made Jainism almost the religion of their state, were
great patrons of Jaina teachers, Simhanandin revered by Kongunivarman.
Chamundaraya, the general of Marasimha, the Ganga king, was the architect
of the great colossus of Sravanabelgola, the unique sculpture of Bahubali
(AD 983) that is probably the Bapatala one great example of Ganga art if
one were to choose a single example to represent that phase of art itself.
Among
the Hoysala Kings, Vishnuvardhana, originally a disciple of Jaina Prabha
Chandra, subsequently embraced Vaisnavism though his queen Santaladevi, a
remarkable scholar with a high aesthetic taste, continued to be a Jaina.
Queen Santala like her husband Visnuvardhana had deep faith in temple
building and making endowments to Jaina monuments. Vishnuvardhana
continued a favourable attitude towards Jainism and freely endowed several
Jaina temples.
The
Vijayanagara rulers had the largest empire in the south and some rulers
specially Bukka I created an amicable atmosphere by bringing together in
friendship the devotees of Jaina and Vaisnava faiths. The queen Bimadevi
of Deva Raya I was the disciple of a Jaina acarya Abhinava Charukirti.
Panditacharya, the general of Bukka II was a Jaina by faith and Krishna
Deva Raya himself, the greatest emperor of the Vijayanagara royal family,
endowed in AD 1517 for Vardhamana temple at Tirupparuttikunram.
The
extension of the Gupta style can distinctly be noticed in the early
Chalukyan sculptures from Badami and Aihole, datable to c. AD 600. The
style and subjects are almost identical at both the places where the
images of only Parsvanatha and Mahavira Jinas and Bahubali and Ambika are
found. The Jaina caves at Badami (No. 4) and Aihole have seated figures of
Mahavira in the sanctum while the mukhamandapa contains the figures of
Bahubali and Parsvanatha facing each other. The Parsvanatha images from
Badami and Aihole are significant as these are the earliest examples
showing the onslaught of the demon Sambar (or Kamatha) during the course
of Parsvanatha's trance and meditation. Bahubali, also known as
Gommatesvara, is represented as standing in deep trance. The austerities
of Bahubali are aptly shown for the first time at Badami and Aihole. The
rendering of entwining creepers around the hands and legs of Bahubali, and
also the presence of snakes coming out of anthills, carved close to his
legs, are peculiar features of both the Babubali images, suggesting
thereby the long passage of time of penance. In concurrence with the
Digambar Jaina tradition, there also appear the figures of two
Vidhyadharis, embellished in beautiful decorated mukutas and other
ornaments. Aesthetically, the Bahubali and Ambika images at Aihole are
among the finest works of the early Chalukyan artist showing superb grace,
plasticity and suppleness.
Jainism
in South has contributed in no small measure. The great monuments speak
eloquently of the aesthetic taste of the patrons and the architects who
constructed the embellished abodes for their deities and also carved or
painted their figures in the spirit and glory of divine forms.
The
most frequent representation of the Jinas found in South India are
Rsabhanatha, Parsvanatha, Suparsvanatha, Mahavira, Santinatha and
Neminatha. The attack by Kamatha with his dreadful hordes to dissuade
Parsvanatha from his tapas as an ascetic, corresponding to the beguilement
of Mara (Maradharsana) to wean away Buddha from his firm resolve to attain
enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, has been a very popular theme. One of
the finest representations from South India of this theme is at Tirakkol
(North Arcot, Tamilnadu). It is an impressive carving of Pallava period
carved on a large boulder.
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Information Courtesy :
Mr. Pravin K. Shah
Chairperson JAINA Education Committee
Federation of Jain Associations in North America
509 Carriage Woods Circle Raleigh, NC 27607-3969 USA
Email - Pkshah1@attglobal.net Telephone and fax 919-859-4994
Websites - www.jaina.org and www.jainism.org
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Mail to : Ahimsa
Foundation
www.jainsamaj.org
R301002